Table of Content

28 June 2026, Volume 54 Issue 3

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Expert Manuscript REVIEW ARTICLE PAPERS

Expert Manuscript

Study on the Discriminability Between Ships and Corner Reflector Arrays Based on Dual-Radar HRRP Similarity

Xiaofeng AI, Yihang HU, Li GONG

2026, 54(3):  1-10.  doi:10.3969/j.issn.1009-086x.2026.03.001

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Corner reflector arrays can generate high resolution range profiles （HRRPs） similar to those of ship targets， posing significant challenges to existing radar recognition systems. However， the variation patterns of HRRPs for corner reflector arrays and ship targets differ with observation angles. Leveraging this distinction， this paper proposes a dual-radar HRRP similarity feature to discriminate between corner reflector arrays and ship targets. Electromagnetic simulation results demonstrate that this feature effectively captures the differences in HRRP stability under varying viewing angles for the two target types. When the line-of-sight angle between two radars exceeds 60°and the signal-to-clutter ratio （SCR） is -2 dB， the recognition accuracy for distinguishing corner reflector arrays from ships reaches 99.07% using the dual-radar HRRP similarity feature.

REVIEW ARTICLE

Review of the Capability Development of Kinetic Energy Interception Weapon

Huaiping WANG, Lin ZHANG, Qishen HE, Jing WU

2026, 54(3):  11-27.  doi:10.3969/j.issn.1009-086x.2026.03.002

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Air and space offense and defense determine the main direction of war. Air and space defense is the main battlefield of air and space offense and defense operations. Kinetic energy interception hard damage is the main combat mode of air and space defense. The development of kinetic energy interception weapon capabilities involves national strategic interests and air and space security. The development trend of kinetic energy interception weapons was analyzed. The generation mode of operational requirements for kinetic energy interception weapons， the integration method of advanced technologies， the engineering design implementation mode and the analysis framework of the coupling model were constructed. The interaction relationship at each coupling level， the iterative evolution path and other capability development logics were briefly expounded. Based on the coupled model of kinetic energy interception weapon capability development， the current development status and progress of advanced technologies and key solutions related to capability development are sorted out and analyzed in a focused manner. It can provide a reference for improving the quality and speed of the development and evolution of kinetic energy interception weapons， and may have certain reference value for researchers related to kinetic energy interception weapons in air and space defense.

Review of the U.S. Timing Warfare: Concept, Progress and Revelation

Peng GAO, Ke SU, Longwei XU, Yuhan ZHANG, Ke LIANG, Jiale WEI

2026, 54(3):  28-37.  doi:10.3969/j.issn.1009-086x.2026.03.003

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In view of the vulnerabilities inherent in satellite navigation system timing， the U.S. military initially proposed the concept of timing warfare， underscoring the necessity for enhanced emphasis on timing information within the positioning， navigation， and timing （PNT） architecture. This conceptual framework subsequently catalyzed the formulation of a series of legislative measures pertaining to timing security. Given the current academic vacuum in timing warfare research， in contrast to Navigation Warfare， this paper systematically examines the conceptual underpinnings and policy evolution of timing warfare， delineates its potential operational manifestations， surveys relevant technological capacity development， and analyzes illustrative cases of timing-related conflicts. Ultimately， it elucidates the strategic implications of the timing warfare concept's emergence and evolution for China's national timekeeping infrastructure development.

PAPERS

A Bird-Flocking-Inspired Phase Transition Control Method for UAV Swarms Driven by Phase Transition Rate

Jingjing WU, Ming HE, Wei HAN, Chengzhuo LIU, Tao YUE, Haotian CHEN

2026, 54(3):  38-49.  doi:10.3969/j.issn.1009-086x.2026.03.004

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To address insufficient stability in the bird-flocking-inspired phase transition control model for UAV swarms， an improved method based on phase transition rate is proposed. By comparing the behavior of natural bird flocks with that of the bird-flocking-inspired phase transition control model， the regulatory mechanism of the temporal effect of phase transition on group stability is revealed. Based on the leader-follower architecture， a control protocol including attraction， repulsion， alignment， and circling terms is constructed. The temporal characteristics are quantified by the dynamic adjustment rate of the coefficients of behavioral control terms， which is defined as the “phase transition rate”. Simulation experiments show that under the condition of a low phase transition rate， UAV swarms can achieve stable transitions from an ordered state to three behaviors： dispersion， aggregation， and circling. Comparative experiments indicate that the order parameter of low-rate phase transition is higher than 0.9， and the span of the stable interval is 3.67 times that of high-rate phase transition， which confirms that reducing the phase transition rate can improve the stability of behavioral transitions. Furthermore， a low phase transition rate inhibits the formation of vortex phases， indicating qualitative differences in behavioral patterns across different phase transition rates. This study demonstrates significant advantages in increasing the number of phase states in UAV swarms and improving phase transition stability. It not only verifies the key regulatory mechanism of phase transition rate on the phase transition process， but also provides new theoretical and methodological support for enhancing the engineering practicability of the bird-flocking-inspired model for UAV swarms.

Research on Unexploded Ordnance Disposal Technology Based on Drone in Low Altitude Environment

Yongliang HE, Zhenyu GAO, Hui TANG, Chen FEI

2026, 54(3):  50-59.  doi:10.3969/j.issn.1009-086x.2026.03.005

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With the continuous advancement of combat-oriented training， a certain number of unexploded ordnance （UXO） may appear on field training grounds. Manual methods for UXO disposal involve high risks and require considerable manpower. Meanwhile， the rapid transformation of operational support in low-altitude airspace environments provides new possibilities for disposing of UXO. This paper mainly introduces UAV-based UXO disposal technology from the perspective of low-altitude UAV operations. It first reviews the current research status of UXO detection， recognition， and neutralization technologies， and then summarizes the existing difficulties and challenges based on an analysis of the full process of UXO disposal. Taking UAV-based UXO disposal as an example， it explores key technologies such as the construction of training range maps， UXO recognition algorithms， and neutralization methods. Finally， it puts forward views on future development， aiming to provide guidance for the application of UXO disposal in subsequent low-altitude combat support.

Research on Detection Methods for Countering Small and Micro Rotary-Wing UAVs at Surface-to-Air Missile Sites

Shisheng YU, Ke WANG, Yu SUN, Jinghua NIU

2026, 54(3):  60-70.  doi:10.3969/j.issn.1009-086x.2026.03.006

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This paper aims to study the problems exposed during the Russia-Ukraine conflict， such as the close-range blind area of radar monitoring， difficulty in detecting small multi-rotor unmanned aerial vehicles （UAVs） within 5 km around the position， and vulnerability of the self-defense capability of surface-to-air missile positions when coping with penetration reconnaissance and fire attack guidance by small multi-rotor UAVs. Methods Three types of signals emitted by small multi-rotor UAVs are collected. FEKO software is adopted to simulate radar cross-section （RCS） patterns of UAVs under radar operation in different frequency bands. The time-frequency domain characteristics of the signals are analyzed， and the feasibility of employing these characteristics for effective detection is demonstrated. Results The adopted software defined radio （SDR） equipment can successfully intercept and identify the video transmission signals at distances of 100.33 m and 70.129 m from UAVs. By employing the azimuth information provided by SDR， the guidance radar can rapidly detect and track UAVs， which saves 9 min compared with the full-airspace independent search mode of the guidance radar alone， thus verifying the feasibility and practicability of the proposed method. Conclusion By carrying out analysis and verification， a detection method combining radio frequency （RF） signal monitoring and precise radar positioning is proposed. Real-flight UAV tests are conducted， and SDR equipment is employed for RF signal detection， identification， and bistatic direction finding. The guidance radar utilizes the directional information provided by SDR to achieve precise positioning and tracking of UAVs.

Reinforcement Learning-Based Cooperative Trajectory Planning for Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicles and Decoy UAVs

Haozhe QI, Mingfa ZHENG, Xiaorong HU, Nan YANG

2026, 54(3):  71-81.  doi:10.3969/j.issn.1009-086x.2026.03.007

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Unmanned aerial vehicle （UAV） cooperative combat is crucial in modern warfare. The cooperative mode between unmanned combat aerial vehicles （UCAVs） and decoy UAVs has gained significant attention due to its tactical value. This paper proposes a cooperative trajectory planning method based on the proximal policy optimization （PPO） algorithm for UCAV and decoy UAV strike missions against key enemy targets. We construct a Markov decision process （MDP） model incorporating dynamic threat assessment， integrating UAV kinematics and battlefield constraints， and design the state/action spaces and a hierarchical reward function. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed method effectively guides UCAVs and decoys to achieve efficient cooperation in complex environments， significantly increasing mission success rates while reducing interception risks from enemy air defense systems. This provides theoretical and technical support for intelligent path planning in UAV cooperative operations.

Enabling Technologies for New-Form Combat Capabilities in Low-Altitude Scenarios

Liang ZHAO, Chen FEI, Liting OU, Yufeng XING, Lei XIA, Han TAN

2026, 54(3):  82-92.  doi:10.3969/j.issn.1009-086x.2026.03.008

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With the continuous advancement of artificial intelligence technology， low-altitude operations， as a typical example of new-quality combat capability generation， are gradually influencing and reshaping the patterns and rules of modern warfare. This paper first reviews the current state of domestic and international research on low-altitude operations， then defines the concepts and characteristics of low-altitude operations and new-quality combat capabilities. On this basis， it systematically explores the construction of a multi-domain integrated low-altitude operational system and conducts an in-depth analysis of the key technologies and performance metrics involved in the system. Finally， it discusses the development trends of technologies for generating new-quality combat capabilities in low-altitude scenarios， aiming to provide a reference for future research on related technologies.

Simulation of Game-Theoretic Decision-Making for Beyond-Visual-Range Combat with UCAVs

Tongyu SHI, Hao WANG, Youkun WANG, Maolong LÜ

2026, 54(3):  93-103.  doi:10.3969/j.issn.1009-086x.2026.03.009

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Reinforcement learning （RL） performance in beyond-visual-range （BVR） air combat is constrained by inadequate training opponents. This paper proposes a rule-based agent decision framework serving as RL training adversaries， where simulations confirm significantly enhanced combat effectiveness through efficient mastery of tactical maneuvers and improved adaptive decision-making. Fundamental aircraft maneuvers are modeled within an air combat simulation environment with collaborative strategy training modules. To address incomplete coverage and complexity in conventional rule-based decision trees， a state-machine-driven framework implements event-condition mechanisms for state transitions and combat decisions， demonstrating superior performance in comparative simulations. Finally， RL agents trained against this state-machine-based opponent under expert knowledge guidance autonomously acquire classical maneuvers while exhibiting advanced decision adaptability， providing foundational insights for BVR decision systems.

Analysis of Air Strike Scale in Drone/Swarm Colony Combat

Ruchong HOU, Donghua LI, Hua YANG, Fu PEI, Ye WANG

2026, 54(3):  104-114.  doi:10.3969/j.issn.1009-086x.2026.03.010

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In modern warfare， drone/swarm air raids are gradually replacing the traditional air raid model and building a completely new battlefield situation. Whether the enemy's invasion can be accurately predicted is of decisive significance to the resource allocation， plan planning and efficiency-to-cost ratio control of anti-drone/swarm operations. It is directly related to the resource allocation efficiency and mission success or failure of air defense operations. Based on the above requirements， this paper proposes an air strike scale analysis method for drone/swarm combat： by constructing a multi-dimensional optimization function based on steady-state genetic algorithm， comprehensively considering core indicators such as enemy reconnaissance/strike mission completion rate， reconnaissance coverage rate， combat time and cost， and conducting a global search on the enemy's possible incoming scale marshalling scheme. Through quantitative comparison and analysis of indicators， select the enemy's optimal scale marshalling scheme， and finally form a scientific and effective conclusion on the scale analysis of air strikes.

Integrated Design of Aerodynamic Stealth for UCAV Considering Inlet and Exhaust System

Li ZHENG, Hanpu YU, Qixin ZHANG, Shuanghou DENG, Guoxu FENG, Yannian YANG

2026, 54(3):  115-130.  doi:10.3969/j.issn.1009-086x.2026.03.011

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Aerodynamic performance and stealth capability are two critical objectives in the design of modern unmanned combat air vehicles （UCAVs）. This study develops parametric geometric models of the UCAV airframe， inlet， and nozzle through secondary development of CAD software， and conducts aerodynamic numerical simulations of integrated internal and external flow coupling using a 1D engine model. An aerodynamic-stealth integrated optimization framework is implemented through design of experiments （DoE） and surrogate modeling techniques for the UCAV airframe， inlet and exhaust system. The results demonstrate that the proposed optimization framework achieves significant improvements in both aerodynamic and stealth performance， validating its effectiveness in multi-objective aerodynamic-stealth optimization for aircraft with highly-integrated airframe-propulsion configurations. Furthermore， this methodology shows promising potential for accelerating design iterations and reducing developmental expenditures.

Simulation on the Composite Aerodynamic Characteristics of Gas Jet and Rudder of a Flying Vehicle

Tianyu JING, Zehui LIU, Qin CAO, Yanzhao NI, Huifeng KANG, Guangqing XIA

2026, 54(3):  131-139.  doi:10.3969/j.issn.1009-086x.2026.03.012

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In order to study the influence of the mutual interference between the gas jet and rudder surface on the aerodynamic characteristics of a flying vehicle， based on the computational model of a ruddered spinning body vehicle， the influence of the composite aerodynamic characteristics of the gas jet and rudder surface of a flying vehicle under different conditions is analyzed by solving the Reynolds-averaged N-S equations. The simulation results show that： in the spatial flow field， the influence of the rudder deflection angle change on the flow field structure is mainly concentrated in the flow field structure of the jet wake， while in the object surface flow field， it is mainly concentrated in the separation line and the reattachment node； with the upward deflection of the rudder blade， the jet control efficiency shows a tendency of increasing and then decreasing， and the jet control efficiency is obviously lower than that of the two directions when they are in opposite directions when the direction of the direct lateral force is the same as that of the aerodynamic control force；The lower the flight altitude and the higher the Mach number， the more efficient the jet control.

Communication Interference Generation Technology Based on Lightweight DCGAN

Li PAN, Hang RUAN, Yifan FU, Dongping ZHOU, Lei LEI

2026, 54(3):  140-150.  doi:10.3969/j.issn.1009-086x.2026.03.013

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Traditional interference waveform generation methods require prior acquisition of parameter characteristics of the target signal， making it difficult to achieve favorable results when confronted with the complex and diverse communication signal patterns nowadays. To address this issue， this paper proposes a communication interference generation technology based on lightweight deep convolutional generative adversarial networks （DCGAN）. The DCGAN network is utilized to perform unsupervised learning on the features of the target signal without prior information， thereby generating interference waveforms that are highly similar to the target signal. Meanwhile， lightweight processing is applied to the network to reduce the number of network parameters. In this paper， simulation experiments are conducted on communication signals of various modulation types. The experimental results show that the lightweight DCGAN network reduces the number of parameters by approximately 38% without compromising the quality of the generated interference waveforms. When the jamming-to-signal ratio （JSR） is above 0 dB， the bit error ratio （BER） of the communication system affected by the generated interference waveforms rapidly approaches 0.5， which is far superior to the interference effect of traditional interference waveforms.

An Algorithm for High Maneuvering Target Estimation Based on Multi-missile Cooperative Measurement

Gaofeng REN, Mingxue MA, Ruochen JIA, Chunxiao FENG, Daijun LIU

2026, 54(3):  151-159.  doi:10.3969/j.issn.1009-086x.2026.03.014

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To solve the problem of low acceleration estimation accuracy in traditional single-missile observation modes against highly maneuvering targets， a novel tracking method based on distributed cooperative measurement is proposed. A multi-missile measurement scheme is established， and observability analysis identifies conditions for enhanced target state estimation. A maneuvering target tracking algorithm is then designed by integrating the Singer model with the extended Kalman filter， considering the measurement features of medium-to-high pulse repetition frequency Doppler radar seekers. Numerical simulations show that the cooperative measurement mode reduces 3D position， velocity， and acceleration errors to 1 m， 0.8 m/s， and 4 m/s²， improving accuracy by 97%， 97.8%， and 84%， respectively.

Research on Multi Attribute Fusion Threat Assessment Based on PFN and TOPSIS-GRA

Zhiwei HUANG, Gang WEI, Gang WANG, Changyun LIU, Xuan LIU, Haolun SUN

2026, 54(3):  160-179.  doi:10.3969/j.issn.1009-086x.2026.03.015

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A bidirectional， multi-level threat-assessment framework is proposed for engagements against mixed swarms of aerodynamic and ballistic targets， addressing the inability of current methods to reconcile target-type heterogeneity and to quantify swarm scale and cooperative effects. The framework establishes an index system that integrates adversarial threat attributes， key-area defense effectiveness indices， and global correction factors. Intrinsically static attributes are evaluated via Pythagorean fuzzy entropy combined with TOPSIS， while dynamic attributes are fused through grey relational analysis and TOPSIS. A global correction factor explicitly quantifies swarm scale， cooperative gains， critical target types， and higher-echelon intelligence to recalibrate threat attributes. The relative relationship between adversarial threat attributes and defense effectiveness indices finally yields an integrated threat value for each target. Simulations demonstrate marked improvements in accuracy and operational utility for mixed-swarm threat assessment， providing a reliable basis for optimal resource allocation and efficient interception decision-making.

Research on FDA-AWACS Countering Omnidirectional Amplitude-Comparison Monopulse Direction Finding Technology of Anti-radiation Missiles

Jing ZHANG, Bo WANG

2026, 54(3):  180-189.  doi:10.3969/j.issn.1009-086x.2026.03.016

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This paper proposes an innovative omnidirectional amplitude-comparison monopulse direction-finding deception method to address the protection requirements of frequency diverse array （FDA） airborne warning and control system （AWACS） against anti-radiation missiles （ARMs）. By establishing an FDA radar spatial radiation model and analyzing the omnidirectional amplitude-comparison direction-finding mechanism of an ARM’s passive radar seeker （PRS）， the study reveals the mechanism by which FDA generates azimuth deception through the synergistic effect of frequency offset increment Δf and power ratio Δ. Simulations demonstrate that under a configuration of 10 array elements， a 3 GHz carrier frequency， and half-wavelength array spacing， the system can induce a maximum direction-finding deviation of 2°. Error analysis shows that beamwidth variation and antenna aperture offset further exacerbate direction-finding errors. This technology effectively interferes with the PRS error voltage function and normalization processing， providing an effective electronic countermeasure for AWACS against precision strikes.

Research on Military Equipment Knowledge Extraction Method Based on Retrieval-Augmented Generation

Fengguang ZHOU, Chunyan HU, Yuan ZHOU, Haoyuan ZHANG

2026, 54(3):  190-200.  doi:10.3969/j.issn.1009-086x.2026.03.017

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To overcome the difficulty of knowledge extraction from unstructured data in the field of military equipment， this paper proposes a knowledge extraction method based on retrieval-augmented generation （RAG） using hybrid search. First， a large language model is used to assist in constructing an ontology model. On this basis， knowledge is extracted from semi-structured data with reference to the constructed ontology model to form triple data， and the extracted results are used to construct a database. Then， for unstructured data， a novel hybrid search method is proposed. This method integrates sparse retrieval and dense retrieval methods to retrieve similar knowledge blocks as reference examples for prompt design. Finally， prompts for knowledge extraction in the field of military equipment are designed， based on which a large language model is used to extract knowledge from unstructured data. The results show that the proposed method is capable of extracting knowledge from unstructured data. Compared with knowledge extraction without the RAG framework and knowledge extraction based on the RAG framework without hybrid search， the proposed method extracts a larger number of triples and achieves a higher recall rate.

Exploration of Reliability Qualification Test for Air-to-Air Missile with Dual matching Components

Gencheng LI, Ling QI

2026, 54(3):  201-207.  doi:10.3969/j.issn.1009-086x.2026.03.018

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Dual manufacturers are employed to develop and produce new components with high technical requirements and production difficulty to mitigate the influence of newly developed components on the development and production of air-to-air missiles， which raises the issue of how to conduct sufficient and necessary assessments during configuration qualification. Based on the receiving probability formula， the consumer’s risk under two time-terminated test schemes previously adopted in the full-missile reliability qualification test is analyzed， and the lower confidence limit of reliability is evaluated according to the test results. Whether it is the consumer’s risk or the lower confidence limit， it is indicated that the two schemes both meet consumer’s requirements. However， for missiles whose reliability reaches the specified value， the probability of them passing test scheme 2 is low. Currently， as consumers believe that the assessment for dual matching components in scheme 1 is insufficient， the scheme is no longer adopted. Finally， a reliability qualification test scheme that meets the consumer’s risk and the index requirements while also taking into account the developer’s risk is proposed.

Method for Determining the Sample Size of Aircraft System Maintainability Evaluation

Yuwen GUO, Yong LIN

2026, 54(3):  208-212.  doi:10.3969/j.issn.1009-086x.2026.03.019

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It is required to evaluate the maintainability indicators during the identification phase of aircraft system flight test. Currently， the recommended solution in GJB2072-94 with a sample size of not less than 30 is relatively crude and has weak applicability in the case of small flight test samples. Considering the different situations of evaluation objects and indicators， a targeted sample size determination method is proposed to provide reference for guiding the maintenance quantitative evaluation of system identification flight test.

Research on the Similarity Evaluation of Complex Electromagnetic Environment

Miaomiao TIAN, Jinxian PENG, Dan GENG, Chao ZHAO, Xiao WANG, Jianqi QIN

2026, 54(3):  213-222.  doi:10.3969/j.issn.1009-086x.2026.03.020

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Setting up the complex electromagnetic environment is a basic part of training conditions construction. It is important to evaluate the similarity between training electromagnetic environment and required environment. In view of the unclear index system for electromagnetic environment construction and the incomplete similarity evaluation， the similarity evaluation index system is constructed by Euclidean distance. By the way， the similarity characterizations of basic arguments and mode arguments are analyzed based on the basic principles of similarity theory and electromagnetic environment constructing practice. According to the electromagnetic environment properties， the similarity degrees are calculated in multiple dimensions such as threatening electromagnetic environment， objective electromagnetic environment and background electromagnetic environment， the environment mentioned above are aggregated to obtain the expression for evaluating the similarity of electromagnetic environment. The methods can be used to evaluating electromagnetic environment constructing effect， and provide reference to optimize the electromagnetic environment construction.

Equipment Fault Prediction Based on Improved Grey Model with Hybrid Algorithm

Wenwu ZHOU, Xinghe LIAO, Lei LEI

2026, 54(3):  223-233.  doi:10.3969/j.issn.1009-086x.2026.03.021

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To address the problems of over-maintenance and delayed maintenance in traditional maintenance management models following the deployment of large-scale high-tech equipment in military forces， which make it difficult to detect equipment faults in a timely manner and seriously affect the generation of equipment combat effectiveness and the accomplishment of military missions， this paper proposes an improved grey GM（1，1） model based on an HHO-PSO hybrid optimization algorithm that integrates Harris Hawks optimization and particle swarm optimization. By synergizing the global exploration capability of HHO and the local feature extraction capability of PSO， the algorithm optimizes parameters and establishes model adaptation using root mean square error （RMSE） as the convergence criterion， thus effectively improving prediction accuracy. The experimental results indicate that the improved model demonstrates good performance in equipment fault prediction， with low errors and high accuracy， and can provide technical support for early fault warning of equipment.